By the second half of the 19th century, all the prerequisites for the emergence of Darwin's theory had matured. All that was needed was a bright and courageous scientist who could formulate a new idea about In general, these prerequisites can be divided into two groups - scientific and socio-economic.
Criticism of creationists
Charles Darwin formulated the main theses of the theory of evolution in his book On the Origin of Species, published in 1859. There he first used the term “natural selection”. Darwin's ideas became a real revolution in science and public consciousness. The secular public argued furiously, some agreed with the scientist, others doubted. The theory of evolution was immediately condemned by the Church.
And this is not surprising, because people for many centuries believed that the whole world and the creatures inhabiting it were created by God. For Christians, this story is described in the Bible. The theory about the involvement of a certain Absolute in the creation of life in scientific language was called creationist. These views were not questioned for many centuries. It was only in the 18th century that creationism as a theory was first seriously criticized by philosophers and thinkers. Then the first prerequisites for the emergence of Darwin's theory appeared.
Ideas about the variability of nature
In the 18th century, the philosopher came to the conclusion that the Earth did not always exist, but appeared at a certain point in time. He explained his point of view in detail in the book “General Natural History and Theory of the Sky.” This was one of the first attacks on the Church and its creationist views.
In 1830, the founder of modern geology, naturalist Charles Lyell, substantiated the theory that the Earth's surface changed over time depending on climate fluctuations, volcanic activity and other factors. Lyell was the first to timidly suggest that the organic world was not always the same. His idea was confirmed by the paleontological research of the French naturalist. These prerequisites for the emergence of Darwin's theory gave rise to new research.
Theory of unity of environment
The first half of the 19th century was marked by discoveries that proved that nature is a single whole. For example, the Swedish chemist Jens Berzelius proved that plants and animals consist of the same elements as inorganic bodies. The German chemist and physician Friedrich Wöhler was the first to experimentally obtain oxalic acid and then urea. With this, the researcher proved that organic substances can be synthesized from inorganic ones. For their emergence, some kind of divine life-giving force was not needed, as creationists believed.
By the 19th century, Europeans had penetrated into the farthest corners of the planet. Research expeditions were sent to the tropical forests of Africa and the polar tundras of America. Scientists returning home shared their observations. In educated Europe, they increasingly understood how diverse and complex the world is. These prerequisites for the emergence of Darwin's theory allowed the English scientist to summarize a huge layer of information about different species of animals and plants from all over the planet.
Anatomical discoveries
In 1807, German zoologist Alexander von Humboldt became the founder of the theory that the territorial distribution of living organisms depends on the conditions of their existence. His followers continued to study the relationship between fauna and the environment.
New scientific prerequisites for the emergence of Darwin's theory are emerging. New disciplines emerged, including comparative morphology. Anatomists who studied the internal structure of different species came to the conclusion that they had common features. Botanists at the same time made a breakthrough in comparative embryology.
Development of agricultural selection
In addition to scientific ones, there were also socio-economic prerequisites for the emergence of Darwin's theory. The British scientist studied agricultural selection extensively before publishing his most famous book, On the Origin of Species. It originated in the 19th century thanks to the economic development of the British Empire.
Its colonial acquisitions increased. This allowed farmers to use a wide variety of crops on their farms. The socio-economic prerequisites for the emergence of Darwin's theory were that especially proactive farm owners began to artificially improve the crops they grew to obtain a larger yield. This was done through selection. Changing crops to make them more adaptable to new economic conditions prompted Darwin to think that a similar process could occur in nature.
The influence of the doctrine of market economics
The English scientist was greatly influenced by the views of the economist Adam Smith. He created the theory of market economics. It emphasized the importance of competition between different producers. Due to rivalry, companies needed to constantly improve the quality of their products in order to be bought.
The theory of Darwin and all other species is built on a similar principle. This rule was called natural selection. Darwin noted that only those species that are better adapted to changing conditions survive in nature. Everything in the environment was the same as in the market economy. Darwin's theory (the origin of man) insisted on this.
Malthus' demographic theory
The well-known provisions of Darwin's theory also appeared thanks to the research of an English demographer. This scientist in his works substantiated the idea that the human population is growing too quickly compared to the increase in food production. Malthus's idea was that this contradiction would ultimately lead to mass starvation and depopulation.
The theory of the origin of species transfers this principle to all of nature in general. sooner or later should lead to a struggle between representatives of the living world, concluded Charles Darwin, based on the ideas proposed by Thomas Malthus. The scientist believed that nature independently maintains a balance between species so that everyone has enough food, territory, etc.
Darwin's observations
Finally, the final prerequisite for the emergence of Darwin's theory was his own trip around the world on the Beagle. The voyage lasted almost five years (1831-1836). The researcher took part in an expedition whose purpose was to study the outlines of the coast of South America. Thus, Darwin had a unique opportunity to look with his own eyes at the nature of the most mysterious and distant places on the planet.
The Englishman collected a significant number of facts that allowed him to be convinced of the correctness of the evolutionary theory. First, he discovered similarities between the armadillos and sloths of South America and the pristine fossils the scientist discovered during stops on the mainland. Secondly, Darwin was convinced with his own eyes that along with the change of geographical zones, the fauna also changes. Some species that lived on the South American shores were no longer found in the tropics, closer to the equator.
In the Galapagos Archipelago, Darwin discovered a different pattern. Each of the islands in this group had at least one of its own unique species of animals (owls, lizards, etc.). This observation allowed the English scientist to assume that in each isolated zone, development proceeds as usual. Darwin summarized all his conclusions, formalizing them in the form of a new theory in the book “The Origin of Species” (1859). His idea of evolution turned the scientific world upside down.
Page 17. Remember
Jean Baptiste Lamarck. He mistakenly believed that all organisms strive for perfection. If with an example, then some cat strived to become a human). Another mistake was that he considered only the external environment to be an evolutionary factor.
2. What biological discoveries were made by the middle of the 19th century?
The most significant events of the first half of the 19th century were the formation of paleontology and the biological foundations of stratigraphy, the emergence of cell theory, the formation of comparative anatomy and comparative embryology, the development of biogeography and the widespread dissemination of transformist ideas. The central events of the second half of the 19th century were the publication of “The Origin of Species” by Charles Darwin and the spread of the evolutionary approach in many biological disciplines (paleontology, systematics, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology), the formation of phylogenetics, the development of cytology and microscopic anatomy, experimental physiology and experimental embryology, the formation concepts of a specific pathogen of infectious diseases, proof of the impossibility of spontaneous generation of life in modern natural conditions.
Page 21. Questions for review and assignments.
1. What geological data served as a prerequisite for Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory?
The English geologist C. Lyell proved the inconsistency of J. Cuvier's ideas about sudden catastrophes changing the surface of the Earth, and substantiated the opposite point of view: the surface of the planet changes gradually, continuously under the influence of ordinary everyday factors.
2. Name the discoveries in biology that contributed to the formation of Charles Darwin’s evolutionary views.
The following biological discoveries contributed to the formation of Charles Darwin's views: T. Schwann created the cell theory, which postulated that living organisms consist of cells, the general features of which are the same in all plants and animals. This served as strong evidence of the unity of origin of the living world; K. M. Baer showed that the development of all organisms begins with the egg, and at the beginning of embryonic development in vertebrates belonging to different classes, a clear similarity of embryos is revealed at the early stages; While studying the structure of vertebrates, J. Cuvier established that all animal organs are parts of one integral system. The structure of each organ corresponds to the principle of the structure of the whole organism, and a change in one part of the body must cause changes in other parts; K. M. Baer showed that the development of all organisms begins with the egg, and at the beginning of embryonic development in vertebrates belonging to different classes, a clear similarity of embryos is revealed at the early stages;
3. Characterize the natural scientific prerequisites for the formation of Charles Darwin’s evolutionary views.
1. Heliocentric system.
2. Kant-Laplace theory.
3. Law of conservation of matter.
4. Achievements of descriptive botany and zoology.
5. Great geographical discoveries.
6. Discovery of the law of germinal similarity by K. Baer: “Embryos exhibit a certain similarity within the type.”
7. Achievements in the field of chemistry: Weller synthesized urea, Butlerov synthesized carbohydrates, Mendeleev created the periodic table.
8. Cell theory of T. Schwann.
9. A large number of paleontological finds.
10. Expedition material of Charles Darwin.
Thus, scientific facts collected in various fields of natural science contradicted previously existing theories of the origin and development of life on Earth. The English scientist Charles Darwin was able to correctly explain and generalize them, creating the theory of evolution.
4. What is the essence of J. Cuvier’s correlation principle? Give examples.
This is the law of the relationship between the parts of a living organism; according to this law, all parts of the body are naturally interconnected. If any part of the body changes, then there will directly be changes in other parts of the body (or organs, or organ systems). Cuvier is the founder of comparative anatomy and paleontology. He believed that if an animal has a large head, then it should have horns, to defend itself from enemies, and if there are horns, then there are no fangs, then it is a herbivore, if it is a herbivore, then it has a complex multi-chambered stomach, and if it has a complex stomach and feeds on plant foods , which means a very long intestine, since plant foods have little energy value, etc.
5. What role did the development of agriculture play in the formation of evolutionary theory?
In agriculture, various methods of improving old ones and introducing new, more productive breeds of animals and high-yielding varieties of animals began to be increasingly used, which undermined the belief in the immutability of living nature. These advances strengthened Charles Darwin's evolutionary views and helped him establish the principles of selection that underlie his theory.
Scientific prerequisites Development of geology and paleontology - systematization of the geological layers of the Earth. Charles Lyell (“Fundamentals of Geology”) laid the foundations of historical geology with its principles of actualism and historicism. Advances in chemistry: Wöhler synthesized urea artificially. Schleiden and Schwann create the cell theory. K. Baer - opening of the egg. Embryonic similarities of organisms. In Russia, works by Roulier and Beketov.
Socio-economic prerequisites The first quarter of the 19th century - a huge amount of factual material has been accumulated - a generalization is necessary. Agricultural practice required a theory that would allow the development of breeding methods. England is a developed capitalist country, with developed agriculture, colonial - the study of new territories.
The main stages of the life path and journey of Charles Darwin Years of life - 1882 Outstanding English naturalist, founder of the theory of evolution (Darwinism), geologist and biologist.
Born into the family of physician Robert Darwin, the grandson of the famous naturalist and philosopher Erasmus Darwin. His mother came from the Wedgwood family, to which the inventor of English porcelain, famous in England and Europe, belonged. Darwin spent seven years at Dr. Butler's school, where, as he later recalled, his life was not easy; in addition, he was not interested in the sciences included in the official program, he loved poetry and literature, he was not interested in ancient languages (he had no ability for them), the same could be said about chemistry and geometry. Charles was considered by his teachers to be a below average student. “Charles,” his father used to say, “thinks of nothing but hunting, dogs and catching rats, he covers himself and the whole Darwin family with shame.”
When Charles turned 16, his father wanted him to receive a medical education. And young Darwin, not daring to disobey him, entered the Faculty of Medicine in Edinburgh, where in his free time he collected shells, systematized a collection of beetles, studied the development and life of leeches, enthusiastically observed the habits of birds, independently studied natural history, and read a lot.
In 1827, his father, seeing Charles’s indifference to medicine, insisted that his son enter the theological faculty of Cambridge University, but Darwin did not become a pastor. He later regarded his three years of theology at Cambridge as wasted years, as did his two years at Edinburgh and many more years at Dr. Butler's school. But in Edinburgh at least Darwin developed an interest in scientific research. He entered the circle of scientists in Edinburgh, he was invited to meetings of members of various societies and circles, at which famous professors read scientific reports. While staying at Cambridge, Darwin became interested in the works of the great English astronomer W. Herschel, who established the principles of studying natural phenomena, and became interested in the work of Charles Lyell, “Fundamentals of Geology.” He read Lyell's book on the eve of his departure on a trip around the world. Darwin was equally keenly interested in the lectures of Professor J. Henslow, under whose influence he began to strive for independent research.
At the age of 22, he left England for five years and, as a naturalist, sailed around the world on the expedition ship Beagle of the English Admiralty. The purpose of his journey was to compile hydrographic maps for the British Navy. He circled the globe, passing from the south around South America, visited the waters of Australia and New Zealand, and circled Africa from the south. During his stays, he collected botanical, paleontological and zoological collections and carried out geological observations. Darwin notes that the diversity of the animal world is more logical to explain by slow processes of change in form than by individual acts of creation.
The discovery of fossil giant armadillos - relatives of living forms - leads him to the conclusion about the relationship between extinct and existing forms. Having studied the flora and fauna of the Galapagos Islands, Darwin, using the example of differences between closely related species of finches, turtles, and lizards, saw, as it were, the process of evolution itself in action. Tuco-tuco rodent (cubs are sighted, adults are blind). Charles Darwin returns to England as a convinced evolutionist. A long period of development of a coherent theory of evolution begins, based on the discovery of the mechanism of the evolutionary process.
Conscious selection includes the following stages: Theoretical – developing an idea for a future breed (variety). Selection of parent organisms - find the necessary characteristics in the source material that correspond to the goal. Crossing of parental forms, then further crossing with hard culling.
For selection, only individual, uncertain variability (mutation) matters. Mutation is a sudden change in genetic material. As a result of single large mutations, the following were bred: Ancona breed of short-legged sheep, dachshund, duck with a hooked nose.
Stabilizing selection Aimed at preserving the average value of a trait established in a population. The result of stabilizing selection is the great similarity of all individuals of plants and animals observed in any population. Examples: -number of eyes in vertebrates; -number of rays in paired limbs; -hemoglobin molecule.
Sexual selection Natural selection concerning the characteristics of individuals of the same sex. This is a special case of intraspecific natural selection, and not an independent factor of evolution. Examples: -bright coloring of males of many birds and dull coloring of females; -mating calls and other forms of behavior; -specific odors; -weapons of tournament combat (horns, fangs, spurs)
Verification test 1. Caring for offspring is... 2. Active care for offspring is... 3. Preventive care for offspring is... 4. Passive care for offspring is... 5. The evolutionary meaning of caring for offspring is... 1. Adults individuals carry their offspring on themselves or in their bodies. 2. Increases the survival rate of offspring and makes excessive fertility unnecessary. 3. Animal actions that provide better conditions for the survival and development of offspring. 4. Adults provide shelter, food, warmth, training, etc. 5. Caring for the offspring is limited to creating shelter and preparing food.
Lesson topic: Prerequisites for the emergence of the teachings of Charles Darwin.
The purpose of the lesson:
– form ideas about the processes of evolution, its causes and results; expand knowledge about Charles Darwin’s contribution to the development of the theory of evolution and the formation of modern evolutionary theory;
– develop the ability to generalize and compare, give examples, work independently with educational material, reproduce the material using graphic supporting notes;
– promote the formation of a respectful attitude towards the personality of scientists who participated in the formation of evolutionary ideas.
Equipment : textbook, diagram, portraits of scientists
Lesson type : combined
During the classes
I. Organizational moment
Greetings, defining the objectives of the lesson.
II. Updating knowledge
Frontal conversation.
What is evolution? Directions of evolution?
Name the scientists who contributed to the development of biological science in the pre-Darwinian period?
What advances contributed to the development of biology in the pre-Darwinian period?
Contribution of K. Linnaeus to the development of science.
The first evolutionary theory of J. Lamarck.
What are the disadvantages of Linnaeus' system?
5. Analyze Lamarck’s achievements in science.
6 . Work according to options:
Achievements and shortcomings of C. Linnaeus
Achievements and shortcomings of J. B. Lamarck
7. Draw a conclusion about the contribution of these scientists to the development of the theory of evolution in the pre-Darwinian period.
III Learning new knowledge
England of the first half of the 19th century. was a country with developed industry, agriculture and the largest colonial power. The country's urban population grew, and intensive restructuring of agriculture was carried out: the concentration of land in the hands of large farmers increased, crop rotation was introduced, fertilizers were widely used, and machines were used for cultivating the soil and caring for plants.
Developing industry, the conquest of new colonies and brisk trade with many countries of the world required more raw materials and food products for the population from agriculture, and therefore the development of intensive crop and livestock farming methods was stimulated. Intensive restructuring of agriculture was carried out: the concentration of land in the hands of large farmers increased, crop rotation was introduced, fertilizers were used more widely, and machines were used for cultivating the soil and caring for plants.
However, existing plant varieties, like animal breeds, could not satisfy the growing needs, and therefore selection, the science of developing new and improving existing plant varieties and animal breeds, developed rapidly. The main method of selection at that time was the selection and preservation of the best varieties of plants or animal breeds for breeding.
In England, experienced breeders appeared who, under the conditions of large-scale capitalist production, in a relatively short time, developed many new and valuable varieties of field, garden, ornamental plants and breeds of domestic animals (a number of breeds of large and small cattle, pigs, dogs, rabbits, pigeons, poultry) with new useful traits. The achievements of breeders showed that people can change breeds and varieties and adapt them to their needs through artificial selection. However, despite the provisions of transformism about the variability of nature, Lamarck’s theory of evolution, Charles Lyell’s theory of gradual changes in the Earth’s surface under the influence of natural forces, the successes of paleontology, comparative embryology and systematics, the approval by the cell theory of the principle of development of living nature, which convincingly showed the unity of the structure of plants and animals, their work had no theoretical basis. And, perhaps, she would not have had it for quite a long time if the English government had not organized special expeditions in which scientists took part to search for raw materials and new markets.
In one of these expeditions, the young Charles Darwin traveled around the world as a naturalist, who witnessed the successes of English selection. During the trip, he collected rich factual material, which served as a source for the development of the theory of evolution, and later generalized the experience of breeders and skillfully used data from agricultural practice to substantiate the theory of evolution of the organic world.
Trip around the world. A special place in Darwin's life was his five-year (1831-1836) trip around the world as a naturalist on the Beagle (Fig. 1), which became a real school for him. Working intensively as a geologist, paleontologist, zoologist, botanist, anthropologist, ethnographer, he collected enormous and very valuable scientific material, which played an exceptional role in the development of the evolutionary idea
Geological observations on oceanic islands, in South America, the Cordillera and other places of observation confirmed Lyell's idea about the constant change of the Earth's surface under the influence of external and internal causes. A comparison of various factors led Darwin to the conclusion that the extinction of animal and plant species of past eras cannot be explained by “great catastrophes.”
Darwin is responsible for a number of interesting paleontological finds. A comparison of fossil sloths and armadillos with living species showed that their skeleton is characterized by many common features; at the same time, there were noticeable differences in the skeletal structure of the compared forms. After analyzing numerous facts, Darwin came to the conclusion that extinct and modern animals have a common origin, but the latter have changed significantly. The reason for this could be changes taking place on the earth's surface. They could also be the cause of the extinction of species, the remains of which are found in the earth's layers.
During his trip around the world, Darwin collected interesting materials that explain the patterns of geographical distribution of organisms in the latitudinal (from Brazil to Tierra del Fuego) and vertical (as they climb the mountains) directions. He drew attention to the dependence of fauna and flora on the living conditions of animals and plants.
Research in the Galapagos. Darwin collected especially valuable material on the islands of the Galapagos archipelago, which are located in the equatorial zone of the Pacific Ocean at a distance of 800-900 km to the west from the coast of South America. He was especially struck by the uniqueness of the fauna and flora of the Galapagos. There are relatively few species in the archipelago, but most of them are characterized by a large number of individuals. Darwin collected 26 species of land birds, all but one of which are found nowhere else. He described 13 species of finches - endemic birds, i.e. common only in this area. In addition to other characteristics, finch species differ in the shape and size of the beak - from massive, like that of a grosbeak, to small and thin, like that of a finch or robin (Fig. 2). Darwin proved that the structural features of the beak depend on the nature of the food of these birds (plant seeds, insects, etc.). Different forms of finches are found on different islands. Darwin notes that it is indeed possible to imagine that one mainland species was modified at different ends of the archipelago. Zoologists call these birds Darwin's finches.
Comparing the fauna of the Galapagos and South America, Darwin states that the fauna of the archipelago bears the imprint of continental forms and at the same time is a special Galapagos variant. He ponders the significance of isolation in the differentiation of species. The peculiarities and distribution pattern of Galapagos organisms impressed him so much, Darwin noted, that he began to systematically collect all the facts that had a certain relationship to the species.
Darwin's stay on Tierra del Fuego and meetings with the natives led him to a bold idea about the animal origin of man. The study of the structure of coral reefs was the basis for Darwin's development of the theory of the formation of coral islands.
After the trip. After returning from the trip on October 2, 1836, Darwin processed and published the collected geological, zoological and other materials and began to develop the idea of the historical development of the organic world, which originated during the trip. For over 20 years, he has been persistently developing and substantiating this idea, and continues to collect and summarize acts, especially from the practice of crop and livestock farming.
On November 24, 1859, the already mentioned brilliant work of Charles Darwin, “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life,” was published. This book, which skillfully presented and comprehensively substantiated the scientific foundations of evolutionary theory, was very popular; its entire circulation was sold out on the first day. The appearance of “The Origin of Species” was figuratively compared by one of Darwin’s contemporaries to an explosion, “which science had not yet seen, which had been prepared for so long and burst out so quickly, so silently summed up and so deadly. In the size and significance of the destruction caused, in the echo that echoed in the most remote branches of human thought, it was a scientific feat that had no equal" (c) - (Kravchenko M.A., Kravets G.K., Khranovsky P.A. Piece of goodness critters. - K.; Rad School, 1954, p. 45).
After the publication of The Origin of Species, Darwin continued to work energetically to substantiate the problem of evolution. In 1868, he published “Changes in Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants,” where he comprehensively analyzed the patterns of variability, heredity, and artificial selection. Darwin extends the idea of the historical development of plants and animals to the problem of the origin of man. In 1871, his book “The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection” was published, in which numerous evidence of the animal origin of man is analyzed in detail. “The Origin of Species” and the next two books form a single scientific trilogy; they provide irrefutable evidence of the historical development of the organic world, establish the driving forces of evolution, define the paths of evolutionary transformations, and finally show how and from what positions complex phenomena and processes of nature should be studied. His autobiography “Memories of the Development of My Mind and Character” (published in 1957 by the publishing house of the USSR Academy of Sciences) is very interesting.
As a scientist, Darwin was distinguished by his keen powers of observation, developed analytical and synthetic abilities, scientific integrity, exceptional diligence, dedication and accuracy in his work. Until the last days of his life, he did not stop systematic scientific research. So, back on April 17, 1882, Darwin was recording the results of observations in his garden, and on April 19, the heart of the titan of human thought stopped beating. Darwin was buried in Westminster Abbey (London) next to I. Newton, M. Faraday and other outstanding scientists of England.
IV Consolidation of knowledge
Why were Darwin's teachings more convincing than the theories put forward by his predecessors?
V . Homework
Reports“Biography and works of Charles Darwin”, “Evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin and its significance”
VI . Reflection.
Socio-economic prerequisites
1. In the first half of the 19th century. England has become one of the most economically developed countries in the world with a high level of urbanization due to the ruin of small farmers and the concentration of land in large latifundia; demographic boom in England and the associated shortage of living resources
2. Rapid development of industry and agricultural production; increasing industrial demand for natural raw materials (wool, leather) and the population of growing cities for food
3. Establishing the fact of the influence of crop rotation, the use of fertilizers and tillage on the morphology and productivity of plants
4. Intensive development of selection and success in breeding new breeds and varieties of animals and plants, which proved that breeds of domestic animals and varieties of cultivated plants are changed and created by man
5. Territorial expansion and colonization of new regions of the world by England, which led to the influx of new biological material into the metropolis; round-the-world and local expeditions with the aim of developing the natural resources of the colonies, associated with expanding the range of known biological phenomena
6. The dominance of creationistic, idealistic, religious ideas in the scientific worldview and the idea of freedom in the social, cultural and scientific sphere of activity due to the Great French Revolution
Natural science background
1. Development of ideas of natural philosophy and transformism, ideas about the variability of species under the influence of environmental factors
2. Formulation of the first evolutionary theory of J. B. Lamarck (1809)
3. Justification of the fundamental laws of the universe in the first half of the 19th century: the development of the Solar system (mathematical substantiation of I. Kant’s theory of the development of the Solar system by P. Laplace, French), the law of conservation of energy, the atomic structure of chemical elements
4. Formation of the historical method of research in science
5. Approval in biology of the comparative anatomical method of research, the doctrine of homologous organs and the theory of types in (J. Cuvier), indicating the possibility of the origin of one type of animal from a single ancestor
6. Development of systematics, attempts to create a natural system (classification) of the organic world based on their historical relationship (the doctrine of natural groups Jussier, Bonnet
7. Formulation of the theory of cellular structure (Schwann, M. Schleiden, German, 1838)
8. Advances in embryology (discovery of the mammalian egg and the formulation of the law of germinal similarity (K. Baer, Russian), showing the historical relationship of vertebrates
9. Advances in paleontology, which showed the change of animal and plant forms over time, an increase in the organization of animals over time, the increasing similarity of the structure of extinct animals with modern ones, anthropological finds
10. Evidence of the variability and evolution of the earth's crust over time under the influence of natural causes that are still in effect today (climate, precipitation, winds, earthquakes, volcanoes, etc.); the principle of actualism, i.e. the connection between transformations of the earth’s crust and changes in living nature (C. Lyell, English, !833); Charles Darwin took Charles Lyell’s book “Fundamentals of Geology” on a trip around the world and considered him his teacher
11. Malthus' theory of population
12. Vigorous accumulation of descriptive factual material in all areas of biological science (systematics, comparative anatomy, embryology, zoology, botany, biogeography, ecology, paleontology, etc.)
13. Charles Darwin's trip around the world as a naturalist on the ship "Beagle" (1831 - 1836) collection of enormous paleontological and modern biological material, natural science facts during the expedition and more than twenty years of work on its study and understanding
